When we think of trafficking, the image of forced commercial sex work often comes to mind first. But across India, trafficking victims face exploitation in countless forms-from bonded labourers in brick kilns to domestic workers trapped in private homes, agricultural workers in debt bondage to children forced into begging rings. These diverse faces of trafficking reveal a sobering truth: exploitation exists in nearly every sector of India’s economy, often hiding in plain sight behind the facade of legitimate businesses.
Table of Contents
- The two major pathways of trafficking in India
- Commercial sex work: exploitation beyond red-light districts
- Where sexual exploitation occurs
- Who becomes vulnerable
- Forced and bonded labour: the larger crisis
- The mechanics of debt bondage
- Sectors affected by forced labour
- Domestic servitude: hidden exploitation in private homes
- The scale of domestic worker exploitation
- How trafficking into domestic servitude occurs
- Why trafficking thrives across sectors
- The informal economy
- Social and economic vulnerability
- Weak enforcement and accountability
- The path forward
The two major pathways of trafficking in India
In India, trafficking primarily takes two forms: exploitation for commercial sexual purposes and forced or bonded labour. According to the 2024 U.S. Trafficking in Persons Report, in 2022, of the 7,134 trafficking victims identified in India, traffickers exploited 5,151 in labour trafficking, including 1,600 in bonded labour, and 1,983 in sex trafficking.
The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that approximately 11 million people were living in modern slavery in India in 2021, making it the country with the highest absolute number of victims globally. These staggering numbers underscore the scale of the problem, though experts believe many cases go unreported.
Commercial sex work: exploitation beyond red-light districts
Trafficking for sexual exploitation occurs in both obvious and hidden locations. While traditional red-light districts and registered brothels exist, commercial sexual exploitation increasingly happens in less visible venues.
Where sexual exploitation occurs
Forced commercial sexual exploitation takes place in registered and unregistered commercial sex establishments, entertainment venues, massage parlours, hotels, and private residences across India. Traffickers increasingly exploit women and children in sex trafficking in small hotels, vehicles, huts, and private residences, moving beyond traditional red-light areas as buyers become concerned about visiting brothels.
Maharashtra and Telangana reported the highest numbers of sex trafficking cases in 2021. Dance bars, spas, and massage parlors serve as fronts for exploitation, with officials sometimes shutting down unregistered establishments and initiating criminal investigations.
Who becomes vulnerable
Women and girls from marginalized communities face the highest risk. Many victims come from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, with some as young as 14 years old. A government-commissioned study estimated that around 2.8 million persons were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation in India, representing a significant increase from earlier estimates.
The COVID-19 pandemic worsened conditions for many. Financial hardship led individuals to take loans from brothel owners and pimps, increasing their risk of debt bondage. A study found that more than 95 percent of those in commercial sex in India were willing to leave but felt unable to do so due to debt bondage.
Forced and bonded labour: the larger crisis
Labour trafficking represents the most common form of trafficking in India. The phenomenon of bonded labour-where people are forced to work to repay debts-affects millions across various sectors.
The mechanics of debt bondage
Traffickers use debt-based coercion to compel men, women, and children to work in agriculture, brick kilns, embroidery and textile factories, rice mills, and stone quarries. The pattern is disturbingly consistent: traffickers promise large advances to manipulate workers into accepting low-paying jobs, then add exorbitant interest rates, create new deductions for items like lodging or health care, or fabricate the amount of debt.
The brick kiln industry employs more than 10 million workers and is one of the bonded labour-prone industries in India. Workers sacrifice their health, safety, social security, and their children’s health and education in exchange for bare sustenance. A recent report reveals that nearly five decades after India abolished bonded labour through the 1976 Act, the practice remains entrenched, particularly among migrant workers in brick kilns, manufacturing, and agriculture.
Sectors affected by forced labour
Forced labour permeates numerous industries. In agriculture, traffickers exploit entire families including children in coconut, eucalyptus, sugarcane, and other crops. Sugarcane harvesting in states like Maharashtra relies heavily on migrant workers and members of scheduled castes and tribes, many hired by recruiters who take wage advances to create conditions of debt bondage.
In manufacturing, workers face exploitation in garment and textile factories, tanneries, wire and glass production, and home-based embroidery businesses. Bonded labour exists in brick kilns, stone quarries, and agriculture, making it challenging to identify and track due to its presence in remote, informal sectors.
Other vulnerable sectors include construction, mica mining, carpet production, bangle making, food processing, ship breaking, and stone carving. Children as young as eight are forced to work in these largely unorganized labour sectors.
Domestic servitude: hidden exploitation in private homes
Domestic work represents one of the most invisible forms of trafficking, occurring behind closed doors in private residences.
The scale of domestic worker exploitation
An estimated four million domestic workers work in India, remaining part of an informal and unregulated sector. They work in private homes, not recognized as workers but rather as ‘informal help.’ Their wages average only a third of those in other sectors, and they have very limited social protections.
Many domestic workers are migrants from poorer states and are among the most marginalized populations. Most are Dalits or come from other disadvantaged castes and tribal minorities. Many are landless, illiterate, and innumerate, which increases their vulnerability and disempowerment.
How trafficking into domestic servitude occurs
Placement agencies are involved in trafficking girls and women for forced labour, servitude, and slavery. Most victims come from West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand states. Traffickers lure victims with false promises of decent salaries and working conditions, then trap them in exploitative situations.
The Indian government reported rescuing 126,321 trafficked children from domestic work in 2011-2012, a rise of almost 27 percent from the previous year. Activists estimate that including women over 18, the figure could run into the hundreds of thousands.
Why trafficking thrives across sectors
Several factors enable trafficking to persist across India’s economic landscape.
The informal economy
The vast majority of India’s labour force-93 percent, or 450 million people-are employed in the informal sector. These workers typically lack formal contracts, fair wages, and access to social protections. This informality creates perfect conditions for exploitation, as workers have little recourse when abused.
Social and economic vulnerability
Caste-based discrimination drives vulnerability to trafficking. Members of lower castes and Scheduled Tribes disproportionately experience exploitation and bonded labour. Poverty, lack of education, and limited employment opportunities push people into situations where they become easy targets for traffickers.
Climate change exacerbates these vulnerabilities. Drought and natural disasters trigger distress migration, leaving individuals vulnerable to traffickers who exploit their lack of access to resources and knowledge of safe migration routes.
Weak enforcement and accountability
Twenty-one of India’s 36 states and union territories did not report identifying any bonded labor victims or filing any cases under the Bonded Labor System Act in 2022, despite ongoing reports of bonded labor victims in many of those states. The conviction rate for trafficking crimes remains very low, which undermines deterrence.
Corruption and official complicity inhibit law enforcement action. Despite some arrests of officials, a lack of accountability contributes to the perception of widespread impunity for trafficking crimes.
The path forward
Addressing trafficking across sectors requires comprehensive action. Strengthening Anti-Human Trafficking Units, improving victim identification procedures, and ensuring adequate protection services are essential steps. Labour inspections must expand to match the scale of the problem, particularly in high-risk sectors like brick kilns, agriculture, and domestic work.
Protection services need significant improvement. Currently, many government-run shelters face serious shortages of space, financial resources, and trained personnel. Survivors often wait years to receive compensation, if they receive it at all.
Most importantly, tackling the root causes-poverty, caste discrimination, gender inequality, and lack of educational opportunities-is essential for preventing trafficking in the first place.
What do you think? Given that trafficking affects so many different sectors in India, what should be the top priority-strengthening law enforcement and prosecution, improving victim support services, or addressing the underlying social and economic factors that make people vulnerable? How can communities play a role in identifying and preventing trafficking in their local areas?
References
- https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/india/
- https://www.walkfree.org/global-slavery-index/country-studies/india/
- https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2569945/
- https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-trafficking-in-persons-report/india/
- https://www.antislavery.org/reports-and-resources/research-reports/bonded-labour-reports/
- https://kashmirtimes.com/news/abolished-on-paper-alive-in-reality-bonded-labour-persists-in-india
- https://www.pmfias.com/bonded-labour-in-india/
- https://www.antislavery.org/what-we-do/past-projects/india-domestic-workers/
- https://www.themigrationstory.com/post/the-everyday-servitude-of-domestic-workers
- https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/india/
Leave a Reply